Introduction

“We should recognize that a destination is not designed to make tourists comfortable. First and foremost, it is there for its own people”. (Jafari, 2012)

About half of the world’s population lives in urban agglomerations. Cities thus play a major role in terms of both problems and solutions for the future of our planet. SDG 11 focuses on key urban challenges, almost all of which are directly or indirectly linked to the tourism sector, from housing and basic services (11.1), sustainable transport (11.2) and participatory planning (11.3) to cultural and natural heritage (11.4), resilience against disasters (11.5), environmental impacts (11.6) and access to public space (11.7).

Cities have been fuelling tourism growth in different ways. Urban living conditions may drive inhabitants to seek recreation in natural surroundings. At the same time, many cities are attractive tourism destinations of their own, thanks to a high concentration of architectural and cultural sights, historical sites and museums, cultural, sporting events, entertainment and shopping facilities, and events like festivals, concerts, sports events, trade fairs, etc. Large populations also attract large numbers of tourists who visit friends and relatives. In addition, cities serve as major transport hubs and gateways to other des- tinations. City tourism currently represents 20 percent of international tourism and has been recording significant growth (+58 percent between 2010 and 2014) (Bellini and Pas- quinelli, 2017).

The rural-urban nexus

Growth in urban tourism, mostly unplanned, also has effects on rural areas. Cities consume the vast majority of natural resources and are responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions. City tourism adds to the ecological footprint of cities. The influx of tourists increases the demand for basic services, land and resources. Tourism may trigger or accelerate urbanisation, as in Siem Riep near Angkor Wat in Cambodia, or in Arusha in Tanzania.

In rural areas, however, tourism may also help to slow down urbanisation processes by providing jobs and income opportunities, thus reducing people’s need to migrate and seek employment in the cities.

Opportunities

Tourism may well have positive effects in urban areas and contribute to the achievement of SDG 11. Revenues from tourism and the motivation to attract more tourists can trigger the willingness of local authorities to invest in urban infrastructure, e.g. in sustainable transport and safe and accessible public spaces, benefitting both tourists and residents. It may play a role in promoting green urban planning, urban conservation and the protection of local heritage. Investments in entertainment, recreation and leisure facilities may become viable once they cater to a combination of local and tourist demand.

Tourism may contribute to building more resilient communities if it helps to activate social and cultural capital, e.g. by empowering women (>> Goal 5) or by promoting local crafts, if it helps protect local environments and commons and if it provides economic gains for local communities, e.g. by supporting local entrepreneurship. Cities are locations of creativity, innovation and change which can benefit from the dynamics that tourism may bring through meaningful host-guest interaction, including opportunities to foster tolerance of cultural diversity.

The Flipside of the Urban Tourism Coin

However, there is a flipside to the urban tourism coin. The proliferation of low-frills flight connections has been a major driver of city tourism. At the same time, aircraft are a major source of carbon emissions, contributing significantly to climate change (>> Goal 13). The aviation trap and the carbon footprint of travel to and from a destination cannot be excluded from the sustainability considerations of urban tourism. Failure to address tourism-related climate change will undermine the achievement of many other SDGs.

As cities become attractive destinations, they run the risk of suffering from “overtourism” in urban centres which aggravates many of the challenges they are facing. The touristification of residential areas often plays a role in gentrification processes, leading to the dis- placement and exclusion of weaker and vulnerable sections of society. Tourism increases the burden on local infrastructure and transport systems, contributes to traffic congestion and causes significant levels of air and noise pollution. It puts strains on urban sights, increases the demand for energy and water and adds to the volume of waste and sew- age generated in a locality (>> Goal 9). The jobs provided in the tourism sector, though potentially numerous, are often precarious (>> Goal 8).

“Overtourism” in urban areas has led to discontent among local people, and to various forms of resistance. Growing fears for personal safety from crime and intrusion have led to a proliferation of security and defence measures, including gated communities.

Planning approaches that might help in effectively addressing conflicts have often been top-down and fragmented, with urban planners lacking capacities, resources and skills to ensure people’s participation. Participation, if it happens, always runs the risk of remaining selective, as it is very difficult to reach a point at which all groups are equally repre- sented or willing to contribute (Schreiber and Fischer, n.d).