Introduction
Who are those at risk of being left behind?
‘Extreme poverty’, to be eradicated by 2030 according to target 1.1, is measured as income poverty: the population living on less than 1.25 USD (purchasing power parity – PPP) per day. It is a rather simple indicator which allows for an easy international com- parison of data. However, poverty is much more complex and in recent years, increased efforts have been made to build and use indices which include social, economic and environmental indicators. For example, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has introduced (and continues to develop) the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI).
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Countries also apply national poverty lines for national policy purposes. Target 1.2 is aimed at reducing, at least by half, the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions.
None of the poverty indicators refers to a static group of people. Shocks and crises (illness, unemployment, rising food prices, natural disasters) affect households and may make them fall into poverty. Similarly, people may get out of poverty when their situation improves. The population at risk of poverty is usually much bigger than the number of the poor (no matter by what measure) at any point in time.
In addition, people who do not have access to certain rights, including a voice in deci- sion-making or to basic goods and services may be among those “left behind”. Women are consistently the majority of people in poverty across the world, and in many countries, indigenous peoples are among the most disadvantaged groups.
Vulnerability
Vulnerability is a key factor that places people at risk of poverty. According to UNDP’s Human Development Report 2014, ‘structurally vulnerable’ groups are more vulnerable than others by virtue of their history or of their unequal treatment by the rest of society. Many of the most vulnerable people and groups face numerous and overlapping con- straints on their ability to cope with setbacks. (UNDP 2014, p. iv). The types of vulnerabil- ities may include vulnerability to disasters, to loss of income, to exploitation, to illness, to violence, or corruption.
Tourism and the poor and vulnerable
Tourism is one of the sectors with a high level of inbuilt inequality, as it creates unequal wealth distribution among local communities in the destinations (>> Goal 10). The exploit- ing and excluding economic and social power relations that are found in much of tourism practice tend to consolidate and deepen exclusion, exploitation, and poverty. Power rela- tionships between tourists and hosts are always an issue, as the purchasing power of the tourists usually dominates. Tourism activities affect each and every aspect of the lives and livelihoods of the people in the destinations.
Competition for scarce resources
The tourism industry competes with local people for scarce resources, including land, water, energy, utilities, government support, food supply, etc. The poor are by nature of their situation the least able to benefit from tourism, and highest at risk of suffering from the negative impacts of the industry, e.g. in terms of water shortages due to over-con- sumption by resorts, land appropriation by industry, rising consumer prices, displacement, etc. They are also the least able to defend their rights. The bargaining power of tourism business for tax benefits, subsidies and other incentives diverts scarce resources which could otherwise be used for effective policy measures that would really benefit the poor.
Multiple deprivations and tourism
Tourism is an industry which provides employment for a large number of people (>> Goal 8). Some of the jobs require a high level of professionalism and qualification to meet sophisticated quality standards, not only in terms of amenities, but also in terms of eco-standards and social responsibility. Many jobs, however, are semi- or unskilled and
thus more accessible for poorer sections of society. Due to a high level of exploitation and unfavourable working conditions in the sector, jobs in tourism may not be suitable as a way out of the poverty trap.
In community-based initiatives, the involvement of the poor depends upon their ability to provide tourism facilities and services. Poverty is in many cases associated with a lack of resources and skills, such as communication skills and self-confidence, and a low level of formal education (>> Goal 4). The poor may not have the means to achieve certain standards of hygiene and health in tune with tourist expectations. Often, this is due to a lack of access to clean water (>> Goal 6). Their standard of living and housing is usually low, so that they are often not able to provide facilities that would meet the expectations of tourists.